SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Systemic scleroderma</title>

</head>

Systemic scleroderma

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="infobox infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Systemic scleroderma</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Diffuse scleroderma, systemic sclerosis, Curzio's Syndrome</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Patient with systemic scleroderma</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

Systemic <a href="Scleroderma" title="Scleroderma">scleroderma</a>, or systemic sclerosis, is an <a href="Systemic_autoimmune_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic autoimmune disease">autoimmune</a> <a href="Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">rheumatic disease</a> characterised by excessive production and accumulation of <a href="Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>, called <a href="Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">fibrosis</a>, in the skin and internal organs and by injuries to small <a href="Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a>. There are two major subgroups of systemic sclerosis based on the extent of skin involvement: limited and diffuse. The limited form affects areas below, but not above, the elbows and knees with or without involvement of the face. The diffuse form also affects the skin above the elbows and knees and can also spread to the <a href="Torso" title="Torso">torso</a>. <a href="Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">Visceral organs</a>, including the <a href="Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a>, <a href="Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, <a href="Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>, and <a href="Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> can also be affected by the fibrotic process.

Prognosis is determined by the form of the disease and the extent of visceral involvement. Patients with limited systemic sclerosis have a better prognosis than those with the diffuse form. Death is most often caused by lung, heart, and kidney involvement. The risk of <a href="Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> is increased slightly.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

Survival rates have greatly increased with effective treatment for <a href="Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>. Therapies include <a href="Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">immunosuppressive drugs</a>, and in some cases, <a href="Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">glucocorticoids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison's-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2></div>

<a href="Calcinosis" title="Calcinosis">Calcinosis</a>, <a href="Raynaud's_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Raynaud's phenomenon">Raynaud's phenomenon</a>, <a href="Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophageal dysfunction</a>, <a href="Sclerodactyly" title="Sclerodactyly">Sclerodactyly</a>, and <a href="Telangiectasia" title="Telangiectasia">Telangiectasia</a> (<a href="CREST_syndrome" title="CREST syndrome">CREST syndrome</a>) are associated with limited scleroderma. Other symptoms include:

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_symptoms">Skin symptoms</h3></div>

In the skin, systemic sclerosis causes hardening and scarring. The skin may appear tight, reddish, or scaly. Blood vessels may also be more visible. Where large areas are affected, fat and muscle wastage may weaken limbs and affect appearance. Patients report severe and recurrent <a href="Itch" title="Itch">itching</a> of large skin areas. The severity of these symptoms varies greatly among patients: Some having scleroderma of only a limited area of the skin (such as the fingers) and little involvement of the underlying tissue, while others have progressive skin involvement.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Digital ulcers—open wounds especially on fingertips and less commonly the knuckles—are not uncommon.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_organs">Other organs</h3></div>

Diffuse scleroderma can cause <a href="Musculoskeletal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculoskeletal system">musculoskeletal</a>, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, renal, and other complications.<a href="#cite_note-Primer-5">[5]</a> Patients with greater cutaneous involvement are more likely to have involvement of the internal tissues and organs. Most patients (over 80%) have vascular symptoms and Raynaud's phenomenon, which leads to attacks of discoloration of the hands and feet in response to cold. Raynaud's normally affects the fingers and toes. Systemic scleroderma and Raynaud's can cause painful ulcers on the fingers or toes, which are known as digital ulcers. Calcinosis (deposition of calcium in lumps under the skin) is also common in systemic scleroderma, and is often seen near the elbows, knees, or other <a href="Joints" class="mw-redirect" title="Joints">joints</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<dl><dt>Musculoskeletal</dt></dl>

The first joint symptoms that patients with scleroderma have are typically nonspecific <a href="Arthralgia" title="Arthralgia">joint pains</a>, which can lead to <a href="Arthritis" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>, or cause discomfort in <a href="Tenosynovitis" title="Tenosynovitis">tendons</a> or <a href="Myalgia" title="Myalgia">muscles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Primer-5">[5]</a> Joint mobility, especially of the small joints of the hand, may be restricted by calcinosis or skin thickening.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Patients may develop muscle weakness, or <a href="Myopathy" title="Myopathy">myopathy</a>, either from the disease or its treatments.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

<dl><dt>Lungs</dt></dl>

Some impairment in lung function is almost universally seen in patients with diffuse scleroderma on <a href="Pulmonary_function_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary function test">pulmonary function testing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> but it does not necessarily cause symptoms, such as shortness of breath. Some patients can develop <a href="Pulmonary_hypertension" title="Pulmonary hypertension">pulmonary hypertension</a>, or elevation in the pressures of the <a href="Pulmonary_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary arteries">pulmonary arteries</a>. This can be progressive, and can lead to right-sided <a href="Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>. The earliest manifestation of this may be a decreased <a href="Diffusion_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion capacity">diffusion capacity</a> on pulmonary function testing. Other pulmonary complications in more advanced disease include <a href="Aspiration_pneumonia" title="Aspiration pneumonia">aspiration pneumonia</a>, <a href="Pulmonary_hemorrhage" title="Pulmonary hemorrhage">pulmonary hemorrhage</a> and <a href="Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">pneumothorax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Primer-5">[5]</a>

<dl><dt>Digestive tract</dt></dl>

Diffuse scleroderma can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract.<a href="#cite_note-Sallam-10">[10]</a> The most common manifestation in the esophagus is reflux <a href="Esophagitis" title="Esophagitis">esophagitis</a>, which may be complicated by <a href="Esophageal_stricture" title="Esophageal stricture">esophageal strictures</a> or benign narrowing of the esophagus.<a href="#cite_note-Rose-11">[11]</a> This is best initially treated with <a href="Proton_pump_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton pump inhibitor">proton pump inhibitors</a> for acid suppression,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> but may require <a href="Esophageal_dilatation" class="mw-redirect" title="Esophageal dilatation">bougie dilatation</a> in the case of stricture.<a href="#cite_note-Sallam-10">[10]</a>

Scleroderma can decrease <a href="Motility" title="Motility">motility</a> anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract.<a href="#cite_note-Sallam-10">[10]</a> The most common source of decreased motility is the esophagus and the lower esophageal sphincter, leading to dysphagia and chest pain. As scleroderma progresses, esophageal involvement from abnormalities in decreased motility may worsen due to progressive fibrosis (scarring). If this is left untreated, acid from the stomach can back up into the esophagus, causing esophagitis and <a href="Gastroesophageal_reflux_disease" title="Gastroesophageal reflux disease">gastroesophageal reflux disease</a>. Further scarring from acid damage to the lower esophagus many times leads to the development of fibrotic narrowing, also known as strictures, which can be treated by dilatation.

In patients with neuromuscular disorders, particularly progressive systemic sclerosis and visceral myopathy, the <a href="Duodenum" title="Duodenum">duodenum</a> is frequently involved.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Dilatation may occur, which is often more pronounced in the second, third, and fourth parts. The dilated duodenum may be slow to empty, and the grossly dilated, atonic organ may produce a sump effect.

The <a href="Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a> can also become involved, leading to <a href="Bacterial_overgrowth" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial overgrowth">bacterial overgrowth</a> and <a href="Malabsorption" title="Malabsorption">malabsorption</a> of <a href="Bile_salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Bile salts">bile salts</a>, <a href="Fat" title="Fat">fats</a>, <a href="Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>, <a href="Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, and <a href="Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a>. The <a href="Colon_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (anatomy)">colon</a> can be involved, and can cause <a href="Ogilvie's_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogilvie's syndrome">pseudo-obstruction</a> or <a href="Ischemic_colitis" title="Ischemic colitis">ischemic colitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Primer-5">[5]</a>

Rarer complications include <a href="Pneumatosis_cystoides_intestinalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatosis cystoides intestinalis">pneumatosis cystoides intestinalis</a>, or gas pockets in the bowel wall, <a href="Diverticulosis" title="Diverticulosis">wide-mouthed diverticula</a> in the colon and esophagus, and <a href="Cirrhosis" title="Cirrhosis">liver fibrosis</a>. Patients with severe gastrointestinal involvement can become profoundly <a href="Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnourished</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rose-11">[11]</a>

Scleroderma may also be associated with <a href="Gastric_antral_vascular_ectasia" title="Gastric antral vascular ectasia">gastric antral vascular ectasia</a>, also known as "watermelon stomach". This is a condition in which atypical blood vessels proliferate, usually in a radially symmetric pattern around the <a href="Pylorus" title="Pylorus">pylorus</a> of the stomach. It can be a cause of <a href="Upper_gastrointestinal_bleeding" title="Upper gastrointestinal bleeding">upper gastrointestinal bleeding</a> or <a href="Iron_deficiency_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron deficiency anemia">iron-deficiency anemia</a> in patients with scleroderma.<a href="#cite_note-Rose-11">[11]</a>

<dl><dt>Kidneys</dt></dl>

Kidney involvement, in scleroderma, is considered a poor prognostic factor and frequently a cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

The most important clinical complication of scleroderma involving the kidney is scleroderma renal crisis (SRC), the symptoms of which are <a href="Malignant_hypertension" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant hypertension">malignant hypertension</a> (high blood pressure with evidence of acute organ damage), <a href="Renin" title="Renin">hyperreninemia</a> (high renin levels), <a href="Azotemia" title="Azotemia">azotemia</a> (kidney failure with accumulation of waste products in the blood), and <a href="Microangiopathic_hemolytic_anemia" title="Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia">microangiopathic hemolytic anemia</a> (destruction of red blood cells).<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Apart from the high blood pressure, <a href="Hematuria" title="Hematuria">hematuria</a> (blood in the urine) and <a href="Proteinuria" title="Proteinuria">proteinuria</a> (protein loss in the urine) may be indicative of SRC.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

In the past, SRC was almost uniformly fatal.<a href="#cite_note-steen-17">[17]</a> While outcomes have improved significantly with the use of <a href="ACE_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="ACE inhibitors">ACE inhibitors</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-steen11033587-19">[19]</a> the prognosis is often guarded, as a significant number of patients are refractory to treatment and develop <a href="Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>. About 7–9% of all diffuse cutaneous scleroderma patients develop renal crisis at some point in the course of their disease.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Denton-21">[21]</a> Patients who have rapid skin involvement have the highest risk of renal complications.<a href="#cite_note-jimenez-22">[22]</a> It is most common in diffuse cutaneous scleroderma, and is often associated with antibodies against <a href="RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a> (in 59% of cases). Many proceed to dialysis, although this can be stopped within three years in about a third of cases. Higher age and (paradoxically) a lower blood pressure at presentation make dialysis more likely to be needed.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

Treatments for SRC include ACE inhibitors. Prophylactic use of ACE inhibitors is currently not recommended, as recent data suggest a poorer prognosis in patient treated with these drugs prior to the development of renal crisis.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Transplanted kidneys are known to be affected by scleroderma, and patients with early-onset renal disease (within one year of the scleroderma diagnosis) are thought to have the highest risk for recurrence.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div>

No clear cause for scleroderma and systemic sclerosis has been identified. Genetic predisposition appears to be limited, as genetic concordance is small; still, a familial predisposition for autoimmune disease is often seen. Polymorphisms in <a href="COL1A2" class="mw-redirect" title="COL1A2">COL1A2</a> and <a href="TGF_beta_1" title="TGF beta 1">TGF-β1</a> may influence severity and development of the disease. Evidence implicating <a href="Cytomegalovirus" title="Cytomegalovirus">cytomegalovirus</a> (CMV) as the original epitope of the immune reaction is limited, as is parvovirus B19.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <a href="Organic_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic solvent">Organic solvents</a> and other chemical agents have been linked with scleroderma.<a href="#cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">[27]</a>

One of the suspected mechanisms behind the autoimmune phenomenon is the existence of <a href="Microchimerism" title="Microchimerism">microchimerism</a>, i.e. fetal cells circulating in maternal blood, triggering an immune reaction to what is perceived as foreign material.<a href="#cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bianchi-28">[28]</a>

A distinct form of scleroderma and systemic sclerosis may develop in patients with <a href="Chronic_kidney_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic kidney failure">chronic kidney failure</a>. This form, <a href="Nephrogenic_fibrosing_dermopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy">nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy</a> or nephrogenic systemic fibrosis,<a href="#cite_note-pmid20299369-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid20120045-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid20118047-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid20063400-32">[32]</a> has been linked to exposure to <a href="Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">gadolinium</a>-containing <a href="Radiocontrast" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiocontrast">radiocontrast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

<a href="Bleomycin" title="Bleomycin">Bleomycin</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> (a chemotherapeutic agent) and possibly <a href="Taxane" title="Taxane">taxane</a> chemotherapy<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> may cause scleroderma, and occupational exposure to <a href="Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a> has been linked to an increased risk of systemic sclerosis.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2></div>

Overproduction of collagen is thought to result from an autoimmune dysfunction, in which the immune system starts to attack the <a href="Kinetochore" title="Kinetochore">kinetochore</a> of the chromosomes. This would lead to genetic malfunction of nearby genes. <a href="T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a> accumulate in the skin; these are thought to secrete <a href="Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> and other proteins that stimulate collagen deposition. Stimulation of the <a href="Fibroblast" title="Fibroblast">fibroblast</a>, in particular, seems to be crucial to the disease process, and studies have converged on the potential factors that produce this effect.<a href="#cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">[27]</a>

A significant player in the process is <a href="Transforming_growth_factor" title="Transforming growth factor">transforming growth factor</a> (TGFβ). This protein appears to be overproduced, and the fibroblast (possibly in response to other stimuli) also overexpresses the receptor for this mediator. An intracellular pathway (consisting of <a href="SMAD2" class="mw-redirect" title="SMAD2">SMAD2</a>/<a href="SMAD3" class="mw-redirect" title="SMAD3">SMAD3</a>, <a href="SMAD4" class="mw-redirect" title="SMAD4">SMAD4</a>, and the inhibitor <a href="SMAD7" class="mw-redirect" title="SMAD7">SMAD7</a>) is responsible for the secondary messenger system that induces <a href="Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> of the proteins and enzymes responsible for collagen deposition. Sp1 is a <a href="Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factor</a> most closely studied in this context. Apart from TGFβ, <a href="Connective_tissue_growth_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Connective tissue growth factor">connective tissue growth factor</a> (CTGF) has a possible role.<a href="#cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">[27]</a> Indeed, a common CTGF gene polymorphism is present at an increased level in systemic sclerosis.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

Damage to <a href="Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a> is an early abnormality in the development of scleroderma, and this, too, seems to be due to collagen accumulation by fibroblasts, although direct alterations by cytokines, <a href="Platelet" title="Platelet">platelet</a> adhesion, and a type II hypersensitivity reaction similarly have been implicated. Increased <a href="Endothelin" title="Endothelin">endothelin</a> and decreased <a href="Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">vasodilation</a> have been documented.<a href="#cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">[27]</a>

Jimenez and Derk<a href="#cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">[27]</a> describe three theories about the development of scleroderma:

<ul><li>The abnormalities are primarily due to a physical agent, and all other changes are secondary or reactive to this direct insult.</li>

<li>The initial event is fetomaternal cell transfer causing microchimerism, with a second summative cause (e.g. environmental) leading to the actual development of the disease.</li>

<li>Physical causes lead to phenotypic alterations in susceptible cells (e.g. due to genetic makeup), which then effectuate DNA changes that alter the cells' behavior.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2></div>

In 1980, the <a href="American_College_of_Rheumatology" title="American College of Rheumatology">American College of Rheumatology</a> agreed on diagnostic criteria for scleroderma.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>

Diagnosis is by clinical suspicion, presence of autoantibodies (specifically <a href="Anti-centromere_antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-centromere antibodies">anticentromere</a> and anti-scl70/antitopoisomerase antibodies), and occasionally by biopsy. Of the antibodies, 90% have a detectable <a href="Antinuclear_antibody" title="Antinuclear antibody">antinuclear antibody</a>. Anticentromere antibody is more common in the limited form (80–90%) than in the diffuse form (10%), and anti-scl70 is more common in the diffuse form (30–40%) and in African-American patients (who are more susceptible to the systemic form).<a href="#cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">[27]</a>

Other conditions may mimic systemic sclerosis by causing hardening of the skin. Diagnostic hints that another disorder is responsible include the absence of Raynaud's phenomenon, a lack of abnormalities in the skin on the hands, a lack of internal organ involvement, and a normal antinuclear antibodies test result.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2></div>

No cure for scleroderma is known, though treatments exist for some of the symptoms, including drugs that soften the skin and reduce inflammation. Some patients may benefit from exposure to heat.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Holistic care of patients comprising patient education tailored to patients' education level is useful in view of the complex nature of the disease symptoms and progress.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topical/symptomatic">Topical/symptomatic</h3></div>

Topical treatment for the skin changes of scleroderma do not alter the disease course, but may improve pain and ulceration. A range of <a href="NSAID" class="mw-redirect" title="NSAID">nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs</a>, such as <a href="Naproxen" title="Naproxen">naproxen</a>, can be used to ease painful symptoms. The benefit from <a href="Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">steroids</a> such as prednisone is limited. Episodes of Raynaud's phenomenon sometimes respond to <a href="Nifedipine" title="Nifedipine">nifedipine</a> or other calcium channel blockers; severe digital ulceration may respond to <a href="Prostacyclin" title="Prostacyclin">prostacyclin</a> analogue <a href="Iloprost" title="Iloprost">iloprost</a>, and the dual endothelin-receptor antagonist <a href="Bosentan" title="Bosentan">bosentan</a> may be beneficial for Raynaud's phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-Zandberg-42">[42]</a> Skin tightness may be treated systemically with <a href="Methotrexate" title="Methotrexate">methotrexate</a> and <a href="Ciclosporin" title="Ciclosporin">ciclosporin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zandberg-42">[42]</a> and the skin thickness can be treated with penicillamine.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kidney_disease">Kidney disease</h3></div>

Scleroderma renal crisis (SRC) is a life-threatening complication of systemic sclerosis that may be the initial manifestation of the disease.  Renal vascular injury (due in part to collagen deposition) leads to renal ischemia, which results in activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS).  This raises blood pressure and further damages the renal vasculature, causing a vicious cycle of worsening hypertension and renal dysfunction (e.g., elevated creatinine, edema).  Hypertensive emergency with end-organ dysfunction (e.g., encephalopathy, retinal hemorrhage) is common.  Thrombocytopenia and microangiopathic hemolytic anemia can be seen.  Urinalysis is usually normal but may show mild proteinuria, as in this patient; casts are unexpected.

The mainstay of therapy for SRC includes ACE inhibitors, which reduce RAAS activity and improve renal function and blood pressure.  Short-acting ACE inhibitors (typically captopril) are used because they can be rapidly uptitrated.  An elevated serum creatinine level is not a contraindication for ACE inhibitors in this population, and slight elevations in creatinine are common during drug initiation.

Scleroderma renal crisis, the occurrence of <a href="Acute_kidney_injury" title="Acute kidney injury">acute kidney injury</a>, and <a href="Malignant_hypertension" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant hypertension">malignant hypertension</a> (very high blood pressure with evidence of organ damage) in people with scleroderma are effectively treated with drugs from the class of the ACE inhibitors. The benefit of ACE inhibitors extends even to those who have to commence <a href="Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">dialysis</a> to treat their kidney disease, and may give sufficient benefit to allow the discontinuation of renal replacement therapy.<a href="#cite_note-Zandberg-42">[42]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lung_disease">Lung disease</h3></div>

Active alveolitis is often treated with pulses of <a href="Cyclophosphamide" title="Cyclophosphamide">cyclophosphamide</a>, often together with a small dose of steroids. The benefit of this intervention is modest.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

Pulmonary hypertension may be treated with <a href="Epoprostenol" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoprostenol">epoprostenol</a>, <a href="Treprostinil" title="Treprostinil">treprostinil</a>, <a href="Bosentan" title="Bosentan">bosentan</a>, and possibly aerolized iloprost.<a href="#cite_note-Zandberg-42">[42]</a> <a href="Nintedanib" title="Nintedanib">Nintedanib</a> was approved for use in the United States <a href="Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> on September 6, 2019, to slow the rate of decline in pulmonary function in patients with systemic sclerosis-associated <a href="Interstitial_lung_disease" title="Interstitial lung disease">interstitial lung disease</a> (SSc-ILD).<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div>

Some evidence indicates that <a href="Plasmapheresis" title="Plasmapheresis">plasmapheresis</a> (therapeutic plasma exchange) can be used to treat the systemic form of scleroderma. In Italy, it is a government-approved treatment option. This is done by replacing <a href="Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a> with a fluid consisting of <a href="Albumin" title="Albumin">albumin</a>, and is thought to keep the disease at bay by reducing the circulation of scleroderma autoantibodies.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2></div>

Systemic scleroderma is a <a href="Rare_disease" title="Rare disease">rare disease</a>, with an annual incidence that varies in different populations. Estimates of incidence (new cases per million people) range from 3.7 to 43 in the United Kingdom and Europe, 7.2 in Japan, 10.9 in Taiwan, 12.0 to 22.8 in Australia, 13.9 to 21.0 in the United States, and 21.2 in Buenos Aires.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-48">[48]</a> The interval of peak onset starts at age 30<a href="#cite_note-uptodate-49">[49]</a> and ends at age 50.<a href="#cite_note-uptodate-49">[49]</a>

Globally, estimates of prevalence vary from 31.0 to 658.6 affected people per million.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-48">[48]</a> Systemic sclerosis has a female:male ratio of 3:1 (8:1 in mid- to late childbearing years). Incidence is twice as high among African Americans. Full-blooded <a href="Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw Native Americans</a> in Oklahoma have the highest prevalence in the world (469 per 100,000).<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

The disease has some hereditary association. It may also be caused by an immune reaction to a virus (<a href="Molecular_mimicry" title="Molecular mimicry">molecular mimicry</a>) or by toxins.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison's-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Support_groups">Support groups</h3></div>

The Juvenile Scleroderma Network is an organization dedicated to providing emotional support and educational information to parents and their children living with juvenile scleroderma, supporting pediatric research to identify the cause of and the cure for juvenile scleroderma, and enhancing public awareness.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>

In the US, the Scleroderma Foundation is dedicated to raise awareness of the disease and assist those who are affected.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

The <a href="Scleroderma_Research_Foundation" title="Scleroderma Research Foundation">Scleroderma Research Foundation</a> sponsors research into the condition.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Comedian and television presenter <a href="Bob_Saget" title="Bob Saget">Bob Saget</a>, a board member of the SRF, directed the 1996 ABC TV movie <a href="For_Hope" title="For Hope">For Hope</a>, starring <a href="Dana_Delany" title="Dana Delany">Dana Delany</a>, which depicts a young woman fatally affected by scleroderma; the film was based on the experiences of Saget's sister Gay.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>

Scleroderma and Raynaud's UK is a British charity formed by the merger of two smaller organisations in 2016 to provide support for people with scleroderma and fund research into the condition.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2></div>

A 2018 study placed 10-year survival rates at 88%, without differentiation based on subtype. Diffuse systemic sclerosis, internal organ complications, and older age at diagnosis are associated with worse prognoses.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div>

Given the difficulty in treating scleroderma, treatments with a smaller <a href="Evidence_based_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence based medicine">evidence base</a> are often tried to control the disease. These include <a href="Antithymocyte_globulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Antithymocyte globulin">antithymocyte globulin</a> and <a href="Mycophenolate_mofetil" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycophenolate mofetil">mycophenolate mofetil</a>; some reports have shown improvements in the skin symptoms, as well as delaying the progress of systemic disease, but neither has been subjected to large clinical trials.<a href="#cite_note-Zandberg-42">[42]</a>

Autologous <a href="Hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation" title="Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation">hematopoietic stem cell transplantation</a> (HSCT) is based on the assumption that autoimmune diseases such as systemic sclerosis occur when the white blood cells of the immune system attack the body. In this treatment, stem cells from the patient's blood are extracted and stored to preserve them. The patient's white blood cells are destroyed with cyclophosphamide and rabbit antibodies against the white blood cells. Then, the stored blood is returned to the patient's bloodstream to reconstitute a healthy blood and immune system that will not attack the body. The results of a phase-III trial, the Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation International Scleroderma (ASTIS) trial, with 156 patients, were published in 2014. HSCT itself has a high treatment mortality, so in the first year, the survival of patients in the treatment group was lower than the placebo group, but at the end of 10 years, the survival in the treatment group was significantly higher. The authors concluded that HSCT could be effective, if limited to patients who were healthy enough to survive HSCT itself. Therefore, HSCT should be given early in the progression of the disease, before it does damage. Patients with heart disease, and patients who smoked cigarettes, were less likely to survive.<a href="#cite_note-JAMA2014-editorial-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-JAMA2014-59">[59]</a> Another trial, the Stem Cell Transplant vs. Cyclophosphamide (SCOT) trial, is ongoing.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<a href="Asengeprast" title="Asengeprast">Asengeprast</a> is an experimental systemic scleroderma drug candidate. It is a small molecule inhibitor of the G-protein coupled receptor GPR68 with antifibrotic activity.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFOnishiSugiyamaKumagaiMorinobu2013" class="citation journal cs1">Onishi A, Sugiyama D, Kumagai S, Morinobu A (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fart.37969">"Cancer incidence in systemic sclerosis: meta-analysis of population-based cohort studies"</a>. Arthritis Rheum. 65 (7): 1913–21. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fart.37969">10.1002/art.37969</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23576072">23576072</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Harrison's-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison's_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harrison's_2-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFLongo,_Dan_L.Kasper,_Dennis_LFauci,_AnthonyHauser,_Stephen_L.2011" class="citation book cs1">Longo, Dan L.; Kasper, Dennis L; Fauci, Anthony; Hauser, Stephen L.; et al., eds. (July 2011) [2005]. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (16th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-07-174889-6</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHinchcliffVarga2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hinchcliff M, Varga J (October 2008). "Systemic sclerosis/scleroderma: a treatable multisystem disease". Am Fam Physician. 78 (8): 961–8. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18953973">18953973</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbrahamSteen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Abraham, S; Steen, V (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4474386">"Optimal management of digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis"</a>. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management. 11: 939–47. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FTCRM.S82561">10.2147/TCRM.S82561</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4474386">4474386</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26109864">26109864</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Primer-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Primer_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Primer_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Primer_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Primer_5-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFKlippel,_John_H.2020" class="citation book cs1">Klippel, John H. (2020). Primer On the Rheumatic Diseases 11ED. Atlanta, GA: Arthritis Foundation. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-912423-16-3</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/crest-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20355535">"Limited Scleroderma"</a>. www.mayoclinic.org. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 6 June 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFValentiniBlack2002" class="citation journal cs1">Valentini G, Black C (2002). "Systemic sclerosis". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology. 16 (5): 807–16. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1053%2Fberh.2002.0258">10.1053/berh.2002.0258</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12473275">12473275</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOlsenKingPark1996" class="citation journal cs1">Olsen NJ, King LE, Park JH (1996). "Muscle abnormalities in scleroderma". Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 22 (4): 783–96. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0889-857X%2805%2970301-X">10.1016/S0889-857X(05)70301-X</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8923596">8923596</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSteen_VD2005" class="citation journal cs1">Steen VD (2005). "The lung in systemic sclerosis". Journal of Clinical Rheumatology. 11 (1): 40–6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.rhu.0000152147.38706.db">10.1097/01.rhu.0000152147.38706.db</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16357695">16357695</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sallam-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sallam_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sallam_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sallam_10-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFSallamMcNearneyChen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Sallam H, McNearney TA, Chen JD (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2006.02804.x">"Systematic review: pathophysiology and management of gastrointestinal dysmotility in systemic sclerosis (scleroderma)"</a>. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 23 (6): 691–712. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2006.02804.x">10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02804.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16556171">16556171</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46188776">46188776</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rose-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rose_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rose_11-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFRoseYoungReynolds1998" class="citation journal cs1">Rose S, Young MA, Reynolds JC (1998). "Gastrointestinal manifestations of scleroderma". Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 27 (3): 563–94. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0889-8553%2805%2970021-2">10.1016/S0889-8553(05)70021-2</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9891698">9891698</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHendelHageHendelStentoft1992" class="citation journal cs1">Hendel L, Hage E, Hendel J, Stentoft P (1992). "Omeprazole in the long-term treatment of severe gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in patients with systemic sclerosis". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 6 (5): 565–77. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.1992.tb00571.x">10.1111/j.1365-2036.1992.tb00571.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1420748">1420748</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31418099">31418099</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTandaipanCastellví2020" class="citation journal cs1">Tandaipan, Jose Luis; Castellví, Ivan (April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2444440520300017">"Systemic sclerosis and gastrointestinal involvement"</a>. Revista Colombiana de Reumatología (English Edition). 27: 44–54. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rcreue.2019.12.003">10.1016/j.rcreue.2019.12.003</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRuangjutipopanKasitanonLouthrenooSukitawut2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ruangjutipopan S, Kasitanon N, Louthrenoo W, Sukitawut W, Wichainun R (2002). "Causes of death and poor survival prognostic factors in thai patients with systemic sclerosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. 85 (11): 1204–9. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12546318">12546318</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSteenMayesMerkel2003" class="citation journal cs1">Steen VD, Mayes MD, Merkel PA (2003). "Assessment of kidney involvement". Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 21 (3 Suppl 29): S29–31. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12889219">12889219</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSteen_VD1994" class="citation journal cs1">Steen VD (1994). "Renal involvement in systemic sclerosis". Clin. Dermatol. 12 (2): 253–8. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0738-081X%2894%2990329-8">10.1016/S0738-081X(94)90329-8</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8076263">8076263</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:906790">906790</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-steen-17"><a href="#cite_ref-steen_17-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSteen_VD2003" class="citation journal cs1">Steen VD (2003). "Scleroderma renal crisis". Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 29 (2): 315–33. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0889-857X%2803%2900016-4">10.1016/S0889-857X(03)00016-4</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12841297">12841297</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRhewBarr2004" class="citation journal cs1">Rhew EY, Barr WG (2004). "Scleroderma renal crisis: new insights and developments". Current Rheumatology Reports. 6 (2): 129–36. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11926-004-0057-5">10.1007/s11926-004-0057-5</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15016343">15016343</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37453739">37453739</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-steen11033587-19"><a href="#cite_ref-steen11033587_19-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSteenMedsger2000" class="citation journal cs1">Steen VD, Medsger TA (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150619184802/http://aramis.stanford.edu/downloads/2000SteenAIM600.pdf">"Long-term outcomes of scleroderma renal crisis"</a> (PDF). Ann. Intern. Med. 133 (8): 600–3. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.494.6389">10.1.1.494.6389</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-133-8-200010170-00010">10.7326/0003-4819-133-8-200010170-00010</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11033587">11033587</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29564540">29564540</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aramis.stanford.edu/downloads/2000SteenAIM600.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 June 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTurkPope2016" class="citation journal cs1">Turk, Matthew; Pope, Janet E. (July 2016). "The Frequency of Scleroderma Renal Crisis over Time: A Metaanalysis". The Journal of Rheumatology. 43 (7): 1350–1355. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3899%2Fjrheum.151353">10.3899/jrheum.151353</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0315-162X">0315-162X</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27134252">27134252</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23093684">23093684</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Denton-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Denton_21-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDentonLapadulaMouthonMüller-Ladner2009" class="citation journal cs1">Denton C, Lapadula G, Mouthon L, Müller-Ladner U (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Frheumatology%2Fken483">"Renal complications and scleroderma renal crisis"</a>. Rheumatology. 48: 32–35. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Frheumatology%2Fken483">10.1093/rheumatology/ken483</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19487221">19487221</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-jimenez-22"><a href="#cite_ref-jimenez_22-0">^</a> Jimenez S, Koenig AS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic2076.htm">Scleroderma</a>. eMedicine.com. Accessed: May 22, 2006.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPennHowieKingdon2007" class="citation journal cs1">Penn H, Howie AJ, Kingdon EJ, et al. (August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qjmed.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/100/8/485">"Scleroderma renal crisis: patient characteristics and long-term outcomes"</a>. QJM. 100 (8): 485–94. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fqjmed%2Fhcm052">10.1093/qjmed/hcm052</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17601770">17601770</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHudsonBaronTatibouetFurst2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hudson, M; Baron, M; Tatibouet, S; Furst, DE; Khanna, D; International Scleroderma Renal Crisis Study, Investigators (April 2014). "Exposure to ACE inhibitors prior to the onset of scleroderma renal crisis-results from the International Scleroderma Renal Crisis Survey". Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism. 43 (5): 666–72. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.semarthrit.2013.09.008">10.1016/j.semarthrit.2013.09.008</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24176729">24176729</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPhamPhamDanovitch2005" class="citation journal cs1">Pham PT, Pham PC, Danovitch GM, et al. (October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-6143.2005.01035.x">"Predictors and risk factors for recurrent scleroderma renal crisis in the kidney allograft: case report and review of the literature"</a>. Am. J. Transplant. 5 (10): 2565–9. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-6143.2005.01035.x">10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01035.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16162209">16162209</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36783555">36783555</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFerriZakrzewskaLongombardoGiuggioli1999" class="citation journal cs1">Ferri C, Zakrzewska K, Longombardo G, Giuggioli D, Storino FA, Pasero G, Azzi A (1999). "Parvovirus B19 infection of bone marrow in systemic sclerosis patients". Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 17 (6): 718–20. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10609071">10609071</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-JimenezDerk-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JimenezDerk_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JimenezDerk_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JimenezDerk_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JimenezDerk_27-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JimenezDerk_27-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JimenezDerk_27-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JimenezDerk_27-6">g</a> <cite id="CITEREFJimenezDerk2004" class="citation journal cs1">Jimenez SA, Derk CT (2004). "Following the molecular pathways toward an understanding of the pathogenesis of systemic sclerosis". Ann. Intern. Med. 140 (1): 37–50. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-140-2-200401200-00013">10.7326/0003-4819-140-2-200401200-00013</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14706971">14706971</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bianchi-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Bianchi_28-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBianchi_DW2000" class="citation journal cs1">Bianchi DW (2000). "Fetomaternal cell trafficking: a new cause of disease?". Am. J. Med. Genet. 91 (1): 22–8. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.605.5548">10.1.1.605.5548</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291096-8628%2820000306%2991%3A1%3C22%3A%3AAID-AJMG4%3E3.0.CO%3B2-3">10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(20000306)91:1<22::AID-AJMG4>3.0.CO;2-3</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10751084">10751084</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid20299369-29"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20299369_29-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbdel-KaderPatelKallenSinkowitz-Cochran2010" class="citation journal cs1">Abdel-Kader K, Patel PR, Kallen AJ, Sinkowitz-Cochran RL, Bolton WK, Unruh ML (March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cjasn.asnjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=20299369">"Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis: A Survey of Nephrologists' Perceptions and Practices"</a>. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 5 (6): 964–71. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2215%2FCJN.00140110">10.2215/CJN.00140110</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2879309">2879309</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20299369">20299369</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid20120045-30"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20120045_30-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"[Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis or kidney failure--how great is the risk?]". Rofo (in German). 182 (2): 114–5. February 2010. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20120045">20120045</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid20118047-31"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20118047_31-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPanosMilasKalakonasMyers2010" class="citation journal cs1">Panos A, Milas F, Kalakonas S, Myers PO (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hellenicjcardiol.org/archive/full_text/2010/1/2010_1_64.pdf">"Cardiac autotransplantation for aortic and mitral valve replacement in a patient with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis"</a> (PDF). Hellenic J Cardiol. 51 (1): 64–6. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20118047">20118047</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-pmid20063400-32"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20063400_32-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFinePerazella2010" class="citation journal cs1">Fine DM, Perazella MA (January 2010). "Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: what the hospitalist needs to know". J Hosp Med. 5 (1): 46–50. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhm.493">10.1002/jhm.493</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20063400">20063400</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBoydZicAbraham2007" class="citation journal cs1">Boyd AS, Zic JA, Abraham JL (2007). "Gadolinium deposition in nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 56 (1): 27–30. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaad.2006.10.048">10.1016/j.jaad.2006.10.048</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17109993">17109993</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSharmaHandaSood2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sharma SK, Handa R, Sood R, et al. (2004). "Bleomycin-induced scleroderma". The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India. 52: 76–7. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15633728">15633728</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFarrantMortimerGore2004" class="citation journal cs1">Farrant PB, Mortimer PS, Gore M (2004). "Scleroderma and the taxanes. Is there really a link?". Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 29 (4): 360–2. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2230.2004.01519.x">10.1111/j.1365-2230.2004.01519.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15245529">15245529</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11105198">11105198</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKettanehAl_MouftiTiev2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kettaneh A, Al Moufti O, Tiev KP, et al. (2007). "Occupational exposure to solvents and gender-related risk of systemic sclerosis: a metaanalysis of case-control studies". J. Rheumatol. 34 (1): 97–103. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17117485">17117485</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFonsecaLindahlPonticos2007" class="citation journal cs1">Fonseca C, Lindahl GE, Ponticos M, et al. (September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa067655">"A polymorphism in the CTGF promoter region associated with systemic sclerosis"</a>. N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (12): 1210–20. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa067655">10.1056/NEJMoa067655</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11380%2F983392">11380/983392</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881752">17881752</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7042371">7042371</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMasi_AT1980" class="citation journal cs1">Masi AT (1980). "Preliminary criteria for the classification of systemic sclerosis (scleroderma). Subcommittee for scleroderma criteria of the American Rheumatism Association Diagnostic and Therapeutic Criteria Committee". Arthritis Rheum. 23 (5): 581–90. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fart.1780230510">10.1002/art.1780230510</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7378088">7378088</a>.</cite> Available online at <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015132731/http://rheumatology.org/publications/classification/systsclr.asp">"1980 Criteria for the Classification of Systemic Sclerosis"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rheumatology.org/publications/classification/systsclr.asp">the original</a> on 2007-10-15. Retrieved 2007-08-05.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMoenningGrau2009" class="citation journal cs1">Moenning R, Grau RG (March 30, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090505132903/http://jmm.consultantlive.com/display/article/1145622/1391088">"Skin hardening, but is it systemic sclerosis?"</a>. The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jmm.consultantlive.com/display/article/1145622/1391088">the original</a> on May 5, 2009. Retrieved August 27, 2009.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOliverWinkelmann1989" class="citation journal cs1">Oliver GF, Winkelmann RK (1989). "The current treatment of scleroderma". Drugs. 37 (1): 87–96. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2165%2F00003495-198937010-00006">10.2165/00003495-198937010-00006</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2651089">2651089</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25010323">25010323</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPhilip_J._ClementsDaniel_E._Furst" class="citation book cs1">Philip J. Clements; Daniel E. Furst. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hopkinsscleroderma.org/downloads/SystemicSclerosis_Chapter23.pdf">Systemic Sclerosis, 2nd ed., Chapt. 23</a> (PDF).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Zandberg-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zandberg_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zandberg_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zandberg_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zandberg_42-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zandberg_42-4">e</a> <cite id="CITEREFZandman-GoddardTweezer-ZaksShoenfeld2005" class="citation journal cs1">Zandman-Goddard G, Tweezer-Zaks N, Shoenfeld Y (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275417">"New therapeutic strategies for systemic sclerosis--a critical analysis of the literature"</a>. Clin. Dev. Immunol. 12 (3): 165–73. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17402520500233437">10.1080/17402520500233437</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275417">2275417</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16295521">16295521</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTashkinElashoffClements2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tashkin DP, Elashoff R, Clements PJ, et al. (June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa055120">"Cyclophosphamide versus placebo in scleroderma lung disease"</a>. N. Engl. J. Med. 354 (25): 2655–66. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa055120">10.1056/NEJMoa055120</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16790698">16790698</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHoylesEllisWellsbury2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hoyles RK, Ellis RW, Wellsbury J, et al. (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fart.22204">"A multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of corticosteroids and intravenous cyclophosphamide followed by oral azathioprine for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis in scleroderma"</a>. Arthritis Rheum. 54 (12): 3962–70. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fart.22204">10.1002/art.22204</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17133610">17133610</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCommissioner2020" class="citation web cs1">Commissioner, Office of the (2020-02-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190906201437/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-treatment-patients-rare-type-lung-disease">"FDA approves first treatment for patients with rare type of lung disease"</a>. FDA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-treatment-patients-rare-type-lung-disease">the original</a> on September 6, 2019. Retrieved 2020-02-25.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boehringer-ingelheim.com/press-release/fda-approves-nintedanib-ssc-ild">"FDA approves Ofev® as the first and only therapy in the U.S. to slow the rate of decline in pulmonary function in patients with systemic sclerosis-associated ILD"</a>. www.boehringer-ingelheim.com. Retrieved 2022-11-30.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHarrisMeiselmanMoriartyMetzger2018" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, Edward; Meiselman, Herbert; Moriarty, Patrick; Metzger, Allan; Malkovsky, Miroslav (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8892860">"Therapeutic plasma exchange for the treatment of systemic sclerosis: A comprehensive review and analysis"</a>. Journal of Scleroderma and Related Disorders. 3 (2): 132–152. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2397198318758606">10.1177/2397198318758606</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8892860">8892860</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35382237">35382237</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:79950781">79950781</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Barnes-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barnes_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barnes_48-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBarnesMayes2012" class="citation journal cs1">Barnes, Jammie; Mayes, Maureen D. (March 2012). "Epidemiology of systemic sclerosis". Current Opinion in Rheumatology. 24 (2): 165–170. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FBOR.0b013e32834ff2e8">10.1097/BOR.0b013e32834ff2e8</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22269658">22269658</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24050211">24050211</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-uptodate-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-uptodate_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uptodate_49-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uptodate.com/contents/systemic-sclerosis-scleroderma-and-pregnancy">Systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) and pregnancy</a> By Bonnie L Bermas, MD. Retrieved on Dec 13, 2009

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFArnettHowardTanMoulds1996" class="citation journal cs1">Arnett, F. C.; Howard, R. F.; Tan, F.; Moulds, J. M.; Bias, W. B.; Durban, E.; Cameron, H. D.; Paxton, G.; Hodge, T. J.; Weathers, P. E.; Reveille, J. D. (August 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fart.1780390814">"Increased prevalence of systemic sclerosis in a Native American tribe in Oklahoma. Association with an Amerindian HLA haplotype"</a>. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 39 (8): 1362–1370. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fart.1780390814">10.1002/art.1780390814</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-3591">0004-3591</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8702445">8702445</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jsdn.org/">"Juvenile Scleroderma Network"</a>. Retrieved 2008-05-11.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scleroderma.org/">"Scleroderma Foundation"</a>. Retrieved 2008-05-11.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srfcure.org">"Scleroderma Research Foundation"</a>. Retrieved 2008-05-11.</cite>.

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sruk.co.uk/">"SRUK – Scleroderma & Raynaud's UK | SRUK"</a>. www.sruk.co.uk.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/scleroderma/pages/introduction.aspx">"NHS Choices Scleroderma"</a>. Retrieved 26 September 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHu,_Shasha2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hu, Shasha (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6235213">"Prognostic profile of systemic sclerosis: analysis of the clinical EUSTAR cohort in China"</a>. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 20 (1): 235. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13075-018-1735-4">10.1186/s13075-018-1735-4</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6235213">6235213</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30348207">30348207</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-JAMA2014-editorial-58"><a href="#cite_ref-JAMA2014-editorial_58-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDinesh_KhannaGeorgesCouriel2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dinesh Khanna D, Georges GE, Couriel DR (June 25, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4926767">"Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Therapy in Severe Systemic Sclerosis: Ready for Clinical Practice?"</a>. JAMA. 311 (24): 2485–2487. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2014.6369">10.1001/jama.2014.6369</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4926767">4926767</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25058081">25058081</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-JAMA2014-59"><a href="#cite_ref-JAMA2014_59-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFvan_LaarFarge_Sont2014" class="citation journal cs1">van Laar JM, Farge Sont JK, et al. (June 25, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/134696/1/P909.pdf">"Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation vs Intravenous Pulse Cyclophosphamide in Diffuse Cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis: A Randomized Clinical Trial"</a> (PDF). JAMA. 311 (24): 2490–2498. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2014.6368">10.1001/jama.2014.6368</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F136804">2066/136804</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25058083">25058083</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205060178">205060178</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Stem Cell Transplant vs. Cyclophosphamide (SCOT), NCT00114530

</li>

</ol></div></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5340515" class="extiw external" title="d:Q5340515">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#1084365812">4A42</a></li><li><a href="International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/M34">M34</a></li><li><a href="International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=710.1">710.1</a></li><li><a href="Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">OMIM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/181750">181750</a></li><li><a href="Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012595">D012595</a></li><li><a href="Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb12845.htm">12845</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000429.htm">000429</a></li><li><a href="EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/derm/677-overview">derm/677</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic2197.htm#">ped/2197</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Systemic_connective_tissue_disorders138" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Systemic <a href="Connective_tissue_disease" title="Connective tissue disease">connective tissue disorders</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Systemic_lupus_erythematosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic lupus erythematosus">Systemic lupus erythematosus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Drug-induced_lupus_erythematosus" title="Drug-induced lupus erythematosus">Drug-induced SLE</a></li>

<li><a href="Libman%E2%80%93Sacks_endocarditis" title="Libman–Sacks endocarditis">Libman–Sacks endocarditis</a></li>

<li><a href="Lupus_nephritis" title="Lupus nephritis">Lupus nephritis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Inflammatory_myopathy" title="Inflammatory myopathy">Inflammatory myopathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Myositis" title="Myositis">Myositis</a></li>

<li><a href="Dermatopolymyositis" title="Dermatopolymyositis">Dermatopolymyositis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dermatomyositis" title="Dermatomyositis">Dermatomyositis</a>/<a href="Juvenile_dermatomyositis" title="Juvenile dermatomyositis">Juvenile dermatomyositis</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymyositis" title="Polymyositis">Polymyositis</a>* <a href="Inclusion_body_myositis" title="Inclusion body myositis">Inclusion body myositis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Scleroderma" title="Scleroderma">Scleroderma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Progressive_systemic_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive systemic sclerosis">Progressive systemic sclerosis</a></li>

<li><a href="CREST_syndrome" title="CREST syndrome">CREST syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Overlap_syndrome" title="Overlap syndrome">Overlap syndrome</a> / <a href="Mixed_connective_tissue_disease" title="Mixed connective tissue disease">Mixed connective tissue disease</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">hypersensitivity</a>/<a href="Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sj%C3%B6gren_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Sjögren syndrome">Sjögren syndrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="IgG4-related_disease" title="IgG4-related disease">IgG4-related disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Beh%C3%A7et's_disease" title="Behçet's disease">Behçet's disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymyalgia_rheumatica" title="Polymyalgia rheumatica">Polymyalgia rheumatica</a></li>

<li><a href="Eosinophilic_fasciitis" title="Eosinophilic fasciitis">Eosinophilic fasciitis</a></li>

<li><a href="Eosinophilia%E2%80%93myalgia_syndrome" title="Eosinophilia–myalgia syndrome">Eosinophilia–myalgia syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Ehlers%E2%80%93Danlos_syndrome" title="Ehlers–Danlos syndrome">Ehlers–Danlos syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Fibrillin" title="Fibrillin">fibrillin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Marfan_syndrome" title="Marfan syndrome">Marfan syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Congenital_contractural_arachnodactyly" title="Congenital contractural arachnodactyly">Congenital contractural arachnodactyly</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine685" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Medicine685" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a> and <a href="Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a>

<li><a href="Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li>

<li><a href="Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">Interventional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li>

<li><a href="Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li>

<li><a href="Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li>

<li><a href="Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li>

<li><a href="Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Phlebology" title="Phlebology">Phlebology</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li>

<li><a href="Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medicine%2C_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li>

<li><a href="Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw external" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li>

<li> Wikiproject</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AMedicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li>

<li> <a href="Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-06-09" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Systemic_scleroderma&oldid=1294755942">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>